PLANNING ENGINEER

Some of my friends have been asking me about “what does a planner do?", "What are the responsibilities of a planner?”

Well a Planner's job descriptions and responsibilities are slightly different from industry to industry. However, the main activities include, but are not limited to, the following:-

• He needs to understand work scope, quantity and should be familiar with logical sequences in terms of engineering, manufacturing and construction disciplines. 
• He needs to conduct field scoping to clarify scope as required. 
• He must understand WBS structure, and has to work with management and project/maintenance team in the development of work break down structure for progress measurement, scheduling, cost estimating and project control. 
• He has to prepare and manage overall master schedule integrating work breakdown structure using scheduling software. (Primavera, MS project, Asta power projects etc) 
• He should understand contractual matter, earn value method, familiar with scope management and change control. 
• He needs to coordinate schedule from multiple contractors/Sub contractors and incorporate the information gathered into the overall project master schedule. 
• He has to prepare cost estimation and schedule bar chart plan considering all in puts (manpower, equipment’s and materials) availability, production and construction sequences. 
• He has to provide work method statement or procedure as required. 
• He should be able to utilize planning tools such as MS excel, MS Project, Primavera, Asta power projects & SAP 
• He should develop and update resources (manpower and equipment) histogram weekly or monthly as required. 
• He has to implement plan versus actual progress charts (histograms/S curves). Prepare reports and analyses deviations from plan. 
• Track, monitor and forecast progress of all activities and deliverable such as products, engineering documents, fabrication status and construction of all discipline. 
• Analyze gaps between the planned and actual progress and highlight the areas of concern which required action of the associate task member. 
• Prepare and update three weeks and three months look-ahead schedule that reflect the priority activities. 
• Liaises with all team leaders/members to communicate required completion dates and interface between functional team/operational team and project team. 
• He should participate in all meetings (i.e. schedule review meeting, progress meeting, coordination meeting, constructability review meeting and so on).

QUANTITY SURVEYING

Surveyors work in a variety of different settings including people's homes, the sea bed, roads and motorways, collectables and large construction sites. They are also responsible for the protection of the environment in which they are working.

Quantity surveying is primarily centred on construction and the management of the costs and budgets of large projects. From the moment a plan is drawn until a large construction project has been completed, a quantity surveyor is likely to be involved in a legal, technical and financial capacity. The functions of a quantity surveyor are broadly concerned with the control of the cost on construction projects, the management and maintenance of the budget, valuations and any legal matters arising through the course of the project. They are required to make sure that the project remains profitable and efficient.

Quantity surveyors need to be highly numerate, commercially aware, professionally trained and great communicators. The job requires a combination of technical, financial and legal knowledge. There are a couple of routes into the profession. Most people will undertake a higher education qualification followed by a period of training within a relevant organisation.

Courses in quantity surveying vary in their content and structure. Some courses will have a sandwich year where you can undertake a year in industry where you can gain valuable experience in quantity surveying and learn relevant skills. Each course will have different teaching styles and different modules, so you will need to check with the institutions that you wish to apply to for up to date information. Some areas you may study include:

• Construction technology
• Business and construction economics
• Construction law
• Arbitration
• Building technology and services
• People and information management
• Facilities management
• Estate management
• Architecture and design appraisal
• Professional development
• Computer-aided design
• Value engineering
• Feasibility studies
• Planning law
• Risk analysis
• Estimating and valuation
• Substructures and drainage
• Floors and roofs
• Commercial management
• Conversion and refurbishment
• Property development

PROJECT MANAGEMENT PROFESSIONAL (PMP)

PMI’s Project Management Professional (PMP)® credential is the most important industry-recognized certification for project managers. Globally recognized and demanded, the PMP®demonstrates that you have the experience, education and competency to lead and direct projects.

This recognition is seen through increased marketability to employers and higher salary; according to the PMI Project Management Salary Survey–Eighth Edition, certification positively impacts project manager salaries.

Who should apply?

The PMP recognizes demonstrated competence in leading and directing project teams. If you’re an experienced project manager looking to solidify your skills, stand out to employers and maximize your earning potential, the PMP credential is the right choice for you.

PMP Certification Requirements

To apply for the PMP, you need to have either:

A secondary degree (high school diploma, associate’s degree, or the global equivalent) with at least five years of project management experience, with 7,500 hours leading and directing projects and 35 hours of project management education. 

OR 

A four-year degree (bachelor’s degree or the global equivalent) and at least three years of project management experience, with 4,500 hours leading and directing projects and 35 hours of project management education.

This is an overview of the requirements. For complete details regarding the PMP eligibility requirements, please view the PMP Handbook for further details.

If you do not meet the PMP eligibility requirements, you may want to look at the Certified Associate in Project Management (CAPM)® certification.

How to apply and prepare for the exam

To apply for the PMP, register and log in to our online system to get started. A printablePMP application form is also available.

Need more information? 

Get more information on the PMP’s role and requirements. For a more detailed look, consult the PMP Handbook.

Ready to take the exam? 

Use the PMP Exam Guidance for information about the exam, tips for preparing, and important updates.

Maintain Your PMP Certification

As part of PMI’s Continuing Certification Requirements program, a PMP credential holder will need to earn 60 PDUs per three-year cycle. To learn more about the program, what are PDUs, how to earn and claim them, as well as step-by-step instructions on how to renew your certification, watch the CCR video. You can also reference the latest PMP Handbook found on PMI.org

If you’re ready to report your activities, visit PMI’s online CCR system to report PDUs and view your certification records. You can download a printable PDU activity reporting form.

Content courtesy Project Management Institute

CIVIL ENGINEERING

Engineering is a term applied to the profession in which a knowledge of the mathematical and natural sciences, gained by study, experience, and practice, is applied to the efficient use of the materials and forces of nature. Engineers are the ones who have received professional training in pure and applied science. Before the middle of the 18th century, large-scale construction work was usually placed in the hands of military engineers. Military engineering involved such work as the preparation of topographical maps, the location, design, and construction of roads and bridges; and the building of forts and docks; see Military Engineering below. In the 18th century, however, the term civil engineering came into use to describe engineering work that was performed by civilians for non-military purposes.

Civil engineering is the broadest of the engineering fields. Civil engineering focuses on the infrastructure of the world which include Water works, Sewers, Dams, Power Plants, Transmission Towers/Lines, Railroads, Highways, Bridges, Tunnels, Irrigation Canals, River Navigation, Shipping Canals, Traffic Control, Mass Transit, Airport Runways, Terminals, Industrial Plant Buildings, Skyscrapers, etc. Among the important subdivisions of the field are construction engineering, irrigation engineering, transportation engineering, soils and foundation engineering, geodetic engineering, hydraulic engineering, and coastal and ocean engineering.

Civil engineers build the world’s infrastructure. In doing so, they quietly shape the history of nations around the world. Most people cannot imagine life without the many contributions of civil engineers to the public’s health, safety and standard of living. Only by exploring civil engineering’s influence in shaping the world we know today, can we creatively envision the progress of our tomorrows.

TIME MANAGEMENT

The construction process is a complex undertaking. It involves many different activities and participants from initial planning through execution. The requisite tasks, and the roles and responsibilities of the owner, architect engineers, construction managers, contractors, and subcontractors can be organized in a number of different ways to deliver a construction project. Despite these many options, building a major construction project today without experiencing schedule delays and cost overruns is often the exception. While there are many factors that can contribute to these poor results, there are two key success factors: effectively managing time and change.

The Importance of Time

Time, with its associated costs, are vitally important for each participant in the construction process including the lender, owner, architect engineers, contractor, and subcontractors, as well as those who provide bonding and insurance coverage. Effective management and the administration of the contract time and change provisions are central to the avoidance and mitigation extended time and cost overruns. To enhance the odds of a successful project outcome, it is essential for participants in the construction process to have a basic understanding of:

• Critical path scheduling techniques, the associated scheduling specifications, and the software involved.
• Delay and how it occurs.
• The pros and cons of various schedule and delay methodologies being used by project participants and experts.
• The foundational principles for any successful schedule and delay analysis methodology.

Managing the time factor can be expensive, fraught with pressures, and subject to much uncertainty. Key factors having an influence on successful project delivery include the use of overly complex scheduling specifications, construction brokering by the contractor, errors and omissions, differing site conditions, user changes, and inadequate time extensions. These can be compounded by reservation of rights for delay, cumulative impacts, and ignoring possible completion date waivers. Further, there is still uncertainty and misunderstanding that remains in terms of what constitutes acceptable standards of proof for excusable delay and impacts. While computers and scheduling software have greatly increased the potential for enhanced scheduling capabilities, they have also contributed to a variety of user quality problems. The situation is often compounded by failure of both the Owner and Contractor to recognize from the start the need for timely resolution of delays and keeping the schedule up to date by reflecting actual performance and delays as they occur.

PROJECT ENGINEER

There are different types of Project Engineers, and each relies on different training and skills to produce designs. Civil and geotechnical engineers perform site designs, study soil composition, and create plans for roads and other municipal structures. Mechanical engineers design heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems as well as machines used in manufacturing and industry. Electrical engineers may create municipal utility systems, or calculate appropriate power supplies for buildings and homes. Finally, structural engineers use weights and loads of materials to design safe buildings and other projects.

To perform these specialized tasks, a project engineer will usually have a graduate level degree as well as several years of experience as an assistant or draftsman. He or she may pursue the title of Professional Engineer, but this designation is not required of all engineers. Most countries and states require that building plans and other technical documents be reviewed and stamped by a PE, but generally don’t require that all designers obtain this title. To use the title of Professional Engineer, an individual must obtain a graduate degree as well as several years of experience, and then pass a state licensing exam.

The daily routine of a project engineer is ever-changing. He may meet with architects and other engineers on a project to coordinate design issues, or may spend the day determining the best system to meet the technical and functional needs of a new building. He might walk the job site to inspect a project as it progresses, and help contractors with questions or problems related to the engineering design. Finally, he may simply spend the day in the office, reviewing schedules and budgets, selecting materials, and managing his fellow team members.

In the construction industry, the title of project engineer is given to new project managers, or job site assistants. Many individuals who enter this field have engineering or construction management degrees, though the responsibilities of those in construction differ significantly from a designing engineer. Construction project engineers typically work out in the field, representing the general contractor and managing the day-to-day project activities. They do no design work, and instead, they help guide tradesmen on the job by interpreting the project’s building plans. After several years of increased responsibility, the project engineer is usually promoted to project manager, and is given his own projects to run.

SUB-WORK / SUB CONTRACTOR

A subcontractor is a person or a company hired by a general contractor to perform part of the work of a construction job. For example, a contractor might be building a house, but might hire a firm or a person specializing in electrical engineering to install the electrical systems needed in the house. Generally the subcontractor will either relieve the main contractor of part of the building work, or will be able to perform work at lower expense or at a greater skill level than the general contractor could.

Often, a subcontractor, whether an individual or a business, forms relationships with several general contractors. The general contractor working with a subcontractor does not employ the subcontractor as a regular employee in most cases. Instead the subcontractor is either an independent contractor, or is a company that provides its employees with required benefits like health insurance coverage.

Not having to extend benefits to a subcontractor is one way that the general contractor saves money on a job. However, if problems occur because of faulty work on the part of the subcontractor, usually the general contractor is held liable for such problems. The general contractor may attempt to seek redress with the subcontractor, or have defined terms in the contract with a subcontractor stipulating that the liability would be more evenly shared.

Frequently, though, hiring a subcontractor, or several, is a way to avoid problems in construction. Specialized workers like plumbers, electricians, or people who install heating and cooling devices, often called HVAC workers, tend to have more knowledge and training in their given field. While simply building something requires training and knowledge, people who are specialists better perform certain types of work.

The subcontractor and the general contractor are served well by being able to form good working relationships with each other. For the general contractor, access to a reliable subcontractor can mean finishing jobs on time and on budget. For the subcontractor, a good reputation among contractors means greater opportunities for consistent work.

A subcontractor often holds licenses in his or her specialty field. He or she might hold a general license to conduct work in a state, and also hold advanced licensing. Such licensing implies a certain amount of hours practicing his or her trade and knowledge regarding state building codes.

In some cases, one may also refer to a person hired for a few days of work, without a specialized field as a subcontractor. Really the more accurate term is independent contractor. The person is usually a temporary employee of the contractor, hired to finish work on time, or to temporarily replace another worker who is ill. This type of subcontractor may not have a general contractor’s license but may be hired for his or her carpentry skills.

TYPES OF ESTIMATES

There are several kinds of estimating techniques; these can be grouped into two main categories:

Approximate Estimates

An approximate estimate is an approximate or rough estimate prepared to obtain an approximate cost in a short time. For certain purposes the use of such methods is justified.

Detailed Estimate

A detailed estimate of the cost of a project is prepared by determining the quantities and costs of everything that a contractor is required to provide and do for the satisfactory completion of the work. It is the best and most reliable form of estimate. A detailed estimate may be prepared in the following two ways

1. Unit Quantity Method

In the unit quantity method, the work is divided into as many operations or items as are required. A unit of measurement is decided. The total quantity of work under each item is taken out in the proper unit of measurement. The total cost per unit quantity of each item is analyzed and worked out. Then the total cost for the item is found by multiplying the cost per unit quantity by the number of units.

For example, while estimating the cost of a building work, the quantity of brickwork in the building would be measured in cubic meters. The total cost (which includes cost of materials. labour, plant, overheads and profit) per cubic meter of brickwork would be found and then this unit cost multiplied by the number of cubic meters of brickwork in the building would give the estimated cost of brickwork. This method has the advantage that the unit costs on various jobs can be readily compared and that the total estimate can easily be corrected for variations in quantities.

2. Total Quantity Method

In the total quantity method, an item of work is divided into the following five subdivisions:

1. Materials
2. Labour
3. Plant
4. Overheads
5. Profit

The total quantities of each kind or class of material or labour are found and multiplied by their individual unit cost. Similarly, the cost of plant, overhead expenses and profit are determined.

TESTING CONCRETE AGGREGATES

Samples of the fine and coarse aggregates approved by the Engineer shall be kept on the Site and shall give a fair indication of the approved quality of the aggregate for comparison with the aggregate delivered during the course of the works.

Should a sample fail to comply with any of tests, the Engineer may at his own discretion reject the batch from which sample was taken, or order it to be washed and/or screened, or permit such to be used with variations in the proportions of the concrete mixes specified, all a the Contractor’s expense. Any batch of aggregate rejected by the Engineer shall be removed from the site forthwith and replaced entirely at the Contractor’s expense.

All sample and testing of aggregates shall be carried out in accordance with ASTM C33.

Preliminary aggregate tests

As soon as the source of supply of aggregate have been approved, the Contractor shall instruct the testing agency to carry out the following tests for compliance with “Specification of Concrete Aggregates” (ASTM C33).

• Sieve analysis
• Tests for clay silt and dust content
• Tests for organic impurities
• Tests for salt content (chloride and sulphate ions)

The results of these tests shall be submitted for approval as soon as available. Test (1) and (2) with tests for the moisture content of each aggregate shall be carried out on the sample used for each trial mix.

Testing samples of aggregate

The contractors shall carry out such tests on aggregate samples as are necessary for the production of the specified concrete. The minimum incremental frequency of tests on each type of concrete used for the works shall be:

• Sieve analysis: at least once weekly
• Moisture content: at least once weekly
• Tests for clay silt and dust content: at least once fortnight
• Tests for organic impurities: at least once monthly
• Tests for salt content (chloride and sulphate ions): for every 500 cubic meters of concrete placed.

If for any reason the Engineer is not satisfied with the works concrete, he may instruct the Contractor to further increase the rate of sampling. Conversely, the rate of sampling may be reduced by the Engineer when consistent high quality been well established.

TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION

Construction is an industry method that consists of assembling or building infrastructure. It has many types such as heavy or civil construction, building construction and industrial construction. Construction works are managed by project managers and supervised by a construction engineers, construction managers, project architects or design engineers.

What is heavy Construction?

Heavy or civil construction is a procedure of adding infrastructure to the environment of a building. The builders are usually government agencies both at the local or national level. These also have legal and financial considerations. This project primarily serves the public interest. They are undertaken and supervised by some large private corporations such as power companies and whoever oversees the construction of access dams, roads and railroads.

What is Industrial Construction?

Industrial construction requires highly specialized skill in construction, planning and design. Holders of this project are normally industrial, for profit or large corporations. This corporation can be found in industries such as chemical, medicine, power generation and petroleum manufacturing.

What is building Construction?

Building construction is a process of adding small or big structures to land or real property. Most of the building construction jobs are small reconstructions like adding bathroom or reconstruction of a room. Often times, the titleholder of the property acts as a designer, paymaster and labourer for the entire job. However, all the building construction jobs include several elements in legal consideration, financial and usual design.

Building constructions are procured publicly or privately using different delivery methodologies such as management contracting, hard bid, construction management at risk, design & build bridging, and negotiated price.

Residential construction technologies, resources and practices should conform to the codes of practice and local building authority regulations. The materials used are widely accessible in the market. The common materials used are timber, stone and brick. The cost of construction is on a “per square foot” basis.This is since homes can vary significantly on local site considerations, conditions, and economies of scale.

PREFABRICATED CONSTRUCTION METHOD

Prefabricated construction is a building process in which elements or modules of the structure are prefabricated at plants, and then transported to the construction site for installation. Using this method can reduce the time of building, also saving construction cost. Prefabricated construction is now widely applied for new houses or other building structures like bridge, tunnels, culverts, water supply system.

The benefits of prefabricated construction method are from the fabrication of standard components on factory floor. This production is less time consumption compared to actual condition of construction process. The prefabricated elements are transported to the site for installing process. At the site, the modules are unloaded, moved into position with the support of heavy cranes, and assembled to form a designed building.

Together with the fast assembly, prefabricated construction also saves a lot of money on the construction project. By using standard patterns, the building materials are saved at the manufacturing factories. This help to reduce the waste in formwork and other materials that can occur during traditional building procedures.

Another considerable profit using prefabricated construction method is the energy efficiency. Because the prefab elements of a panelized home are precut, they fit snugly together, making for a tighter edifice. This means less effort for heating and cooling resulted in lower energy bills.

The rapid development of prefabricated houses has led to the increasing of construction templates that homeowners have more choice for designs of their houses. By combining these templates, it is possible to design the layout of the house, specify the dimensions of each room, and build a home that is exactly to the specification of the owners. There are also complex building plans for prefabricated constructions that can be adjusted slightly and still have the benefit of using materials of standard lengths, widths, and textures.

CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTS

The selection of the appropriate type and size of construction equipment often affects the required amount of time and effort and thus the job-site productivity of a project. It is therefore important for site managers and construction planners to be familiar with the characteristics of the major types of equipment most commonly used in construction.

Construction tools and other equipment

Air compressors and pumps are widely used as the power sources for construction tools and equipment. Common pneumatic construction tools include drills, hammers, grinders, saws, wrenches, staple guns, sandblasting guns, and concrete vibrators. Pumps are used to supply water or to dewater at construction sites and to provide water jets for some types of construction.

Automation of equipment

The introduction of new mechanized equipment in construction has had a profound effect on the cost and productivity of construction as well as the methods used for construction itself. An exciting example of innovation in this regard is the introduction of computer microprocessors on tools and equipment. As a result, the performance and activity of equipment can be continually monitored and adjusted for improvement. In many cases, automation of at least part of the construction process is possible and desirable. For example, wrenches that automatically monitor the elongation of bolts and the applied torque can be programmed to achieve the best bolt tightness. On grading projects, laser controlled scrapers can produce desired cuts faster and more precisely than wholly manual methods

Choice of equipment

• Size of the job: Larger volumes of excavation will require larger excavators, or smaller excavators in greater number. 
• Activity time constraints: Shortage of time for excavation may force contractors to increase the size or numbers of equipment for activities related to excavation. 
• Availability of equipment: Productivity of excavation activities will diminish if the equipment used to perform them is available but not the most adequate. 
• Cost of transportation of equipment: This cost depends on the size of the job, the distance of transportation, and the means of transportation. 
• Type of excavation: Principal types of excavation in building projects are cut and/or fill, excavation massive, and excavation for the elements of foundation. The most adequate equipment to perform one of these activities is not the most adequate to perform the others. 
• Soil characteristics: The type and condition of the soil is important when choosing the most adequate equipment since each piece of equipment has different outputs for different soils. Moreover, one excavation pit could have different soils at different stratums. 
• Geometric characteristics of elements to be excavated: A functional characteristic of different types of equipment makes such considerations necessary. 8. Space constraints: The performance of equipment is influenced by the spatial limitations for the movement of excavators. 
• Characteristics of haul units: The size of an excavator will depend on the haul units if there is a constraint on the size and/or number of these units. 
• Location of dumping areas: The distance between the construction site and dumping areas could be relevant not only for selecting the type and number of haulers, but also the type of excavators. 
• Weather and temperature: Rain, snow and severe temperature conditions affect the job-site productivity of labour and equipment.

ASHLAR MASONRY

The stone masonry in which finely dressed stones are laid in cement or lime mortar is known as ashlars masonry. In this masonry are the courses are of uniform height, all the joints are regular, thin and have uniform thickness. This type of masonry is much costly as it requires dressing of stones.

Ashlars masonry is further sub divided into the following types:

• Ashlars fine or coarse ashlar masonry 
• Random coarse ashlars masonry 
• Rough tooled ashlar masonry 
• Rock or quarry faced ashlars masonry 
• Chamfered ashlars masonry 
• Block in coarse masonry 

Ashlar fine or coursed ashlar masonry

In this type of stone masonry stone blocks of same height in each course are used. Every stone is fine tooled on all sides. Thickness of mortar is uniform throughout. It is an expensive type of stone masonry as it requires heavy labour and wastage of material while dressing. Satisfactory bond can be obtained in this type of stone masonry.

Random coursed ashlar masonry

This type of ashlar masonry consists of fine or coursed ashlar but the courses are of varying thicknesses, depending upon the character of the building. 

Rough tooled ashlar masonry

This type of ashlar masonry the sides of the stones are rough tooled and dressed with chisels. Thickness of joints is uniform, which does not exceed 6mm.

Rock or quarry faced ashlar masonry

This type of ashlar masonry is similar to rough tooled type except that there is chisel-drafted margin left rough on the face which is known as quarry faced

Chamfered ashlar masonry

It is similar to quarry faced except that the edges are bevelled or chamfered to 450 for depth of 2.5 cm or more.

Block-in coarse masonry

It is the name given to a class of ashlar masonry which occupies an intermediate place between rubble and ashlars. The stones are all squared and properly dressed. It resembles to coursed rubble masonry or rough tooled ashlar masonry.

Ashlar facing

Ashlar facing is the best type of ashlars masonry. Since this is type of masonry is very expensive, it is not commonly used throughout the whole thickness of the wall, except in works of great importance and strength. For economy the facing are built in ashlars and the rest in rubble.

3D CONCRETE PRINTING

A free form construction process using a layered manufacturing technology has been developed recently with the aim of fabricating building components and structures directly from Computer-Aided-Design (CAD) data sources. In a free form construction process, components are built up without form work unlike conventional concrete construction methods. Building materials are extruded through a nozzle as self-compacting filaments which form horizontal layers, and these layers when laid down sequentially can create large 3D building components. The free form construction process allows the following possibilities. (a) Reduce materials usage and site work; (b) produce novel internal and external finishes; (c) reduce costly remedial works; and (d) give greater design freedom. Possible applications include acoustic structures, structural insulated walls, and multifunctional cladding panels.

A high-performance printing concrete has been developed for an innovative free form construction process that utilizes digital fabrication methods for building large components. The concrete has a maximum particle size of 2 mm and contains up to 1.2 kg/m3 of polypropylene fiber The fresh concrete was successfully printed through a 9 mm diameter nozzle to build free form concrete components by layers. The fresh state of concrete had an open time of 1.5 hours to let it be printed smoothly. The average compressive strength of the cast and in-situ printed specimens were in the range of 100~110 MPa and 80~88 MPa, respectively whilst the flexural strengths were not significantly different and in the range of 12~13 MPa.

NANOTECHNOLOGY IN CONSTRUCTION

The use of nanotechnology in construction involves the development of new concept and understanding of the hydration of cement particles and the use of nano-size ingredients such as alumina and silica and other nano particles. With the help of nanotechnology, concrete is stronger, more durable and more easily placed, steel is made tougher, glass is self cleaning and paints are made more insulating and water repelling.

Two nano-sized particles that stand out in their application to construction materials are titanium dioxide (TiO2) and carbon nanotubes (CNT’s). The former is being used for its ability to break down dirt or pollution and then allow it to be washed off by rain water on everything from concrete to glass and the latter is being used to strengthen and monitor concrete. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are cylindrical in shape with diameter in nanometers and length can be in several millimetres. When compared to steel, the Young’s modulus of CNTs is 5 times, strength is 8 times while the densite is 1/6th times. Along the tube axis the thermal conduction is also very high. 

Titanium dioxide is widely used as white pigments. It can also oxidize oxygen or organic materials, therefore, it is added to paints, cements, windows, tiles, or other products for sterilizing, deodorizing and anti-fouling properties and when incorporated into outdoor building materials can substantially reduce concentrations of airborne pollutants. Additionally, as TiO2 is exposed to UV light, it becomes increasingly hydrophilic (attractive to water), thus it can be used for anti-fogging coatings or self cleaning windows.

Nanotechnology and Concrete 

As said in the above paragraph much analysis of concrete is being done at the nano-level in order to understand its structure using the various techniques developed for study at that scale such as Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Focused Ion Beam (FIB). The understanding of the structure and behaviour of concrete at the fundamental level is an important and very appropriate use of nanotechnology. One of the advancements made by the study of concrete at the nanoscale is that particle packing in concrete can be improved by using nano-silica which leads to a densification of the micro and nanostructure resulting in improved mechanical properties.

Nano-silica addition to cement based materials can also control the degradation of the fundamental C-S-H (calcium-silicatehydrate) reaction of concrete caused by calcium leaching in water as well as block water penetration and therefore lead to improvements in durability. Related to improved particle packing, high energy milling of ordinary portland cement (OPC) clinker and standard sand, produces a greater particle size diminution with respect to conventional OPC and, as a result, the compressive strength of the refined material is also 3 to 6 times higher (at different ages).

INTELLIGENT TRANSPORT SYSTEMS - INDIA

India, the second most populous country in the world, and a fast growing economy, is seeing terrible road congestion problems in its cities. Building infrastructure, levying proper taxes to curb private vehicle growth and improving public transport facilities are long-term solutions to this problem. These permanent solution approaches need government intervention. 

The Government of India has committed Rs.234,000 crores in the urban infrastructure sector. Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), metro rails and mono rails are being built in different cities to encourage the use of public transport. But still there is a steep growth of private vehicles. Some cities like Bangalore, Pune, Hyderabad and Delhi-NCR, with their sudden growths in the IT sector, also have a steep growth in population, further increasing transportation needs. Meeting such growth with infrastructure growth is seemingly in-feasible primarily because of space and cost constraints. Intelligent management of traffic flows and making commuters more informed about traffic and road status, can reduce the negative impact of congestion, though cannot solve it altogether. 

This is the idea behind Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS). ITS in India, however, cannot be a mere replication of deployed and tested ITS in the developed countries. The non-lane based disorderly traffic with high heterogeneity of vehicles, need the existing techniques to be adapted to the Indian scenario, before they can be used. Thus ITS in the Indian context needs significant R&D efforts.

ITS applications

Indian traffic can benefit from several possible ITS applications. One set of applications is for traffic management.

• Intersection control - At intersections, deciding the total signal cycle and the split of green times among different flows, is one of the most basic traffic management applications.
• Incident detection - Pinpointing locations of accidents or vehicle breakdown is important to handle the emergency situations.
• Vehicle classification – Knowing what kind of vehicles, and in what proportions, ply a certain road stretch, helps to choose appropriate road width and pavement materials.
• Monitoring - Pollution and road quality monitoring are necessary for taking corrective measures.
• Revenue collection - Toll taxes for infrastructure maintenance and fines for rule enforcement need to be collected.
• Historical traffic data - Long term data helps to plan new infrastructure, calibrate traffic signal times, and add public transport and so on.

Another set of applications can aid the commuters on roads. 

• Congestion maps and travel time estimates -These help commuters in route selection. 
• Public transport information - Information about arrival of public transport helps in choice of travel mode and reduces wait delays.
• Individual vehicle management - Getting information about parking places or estimates of carbon footprint help owners of private vehicles.
• Accident handling – Emergency services after accidents are a vital necessity.

Traffic congestion is an important problem in Indian cities. The characteristics of Indian roads and traffic make the problem interesting to solve. There is scope for evaluating existing ideas in different and challenging traffic scenarios, innovate new solutions and empirically evaluate ideas in collaboration with public and private sectors.

WASTE WATER TREATMENT

This post is concerned with liquid wastes as found at permanent locations. The waste water discussed in this section is predominantly of domestic origin. Varying amounts of industrial and laboratory waste waters can be collected and treated with the sanitary sewage. The primary purpose of the treatment of sewage is to prevent the pollution of the receiving waters. Many techniques have been devised to accomplish this aim for both small and large quantities of sewage.

In general, these processes are divided into three stages: preliminary (physical), primary (physical) treatment and secondary (biological) treatment. Minimally, waste water should receive primary (physical removal/settling) and secondary (biological) treatment, which can be followed by disinfection before discharge. More advanced processes (advanced or tertiary treatment) may be required for special wastes. When the effluent from secondary treatment is unacceptable, a third level of treatment, tertiary treatment, can be employed. There are many basic types of sewage treatment plants employing both primary and secondary treatment stages that are in use today for treating large quantities of sewage.

The purpose of a sewage collection system is to remove waste water from points of origin to a treatment facility or place of disposal. The collection system consists of the sewers (pipes and conduits) and plumbing necessary to convey sewage from the point(s) of origin to the treatment system or place of disposal. It is necessary that the collection system be designed so that the sewage will reach the treatment system as soon as possible after entering the sewer. If the length of time in the sewers is too long, the sewage will be anaerobic when it reaches the treatment facilities.

Sanitary sewage collection systems should be designed to remove domestic sewage only. Surface drainage is excluded to avoid constructing large sewers and treating large volumes of sewage diluted by rainwater during storms. Sewers which exclude surface drainage are called sanitary sewers, and those which collect surface drainage in combination with sanitary sewage are called combined sewers.

Except for force mains, sewers are laid to permit gravity flow of their contents. Unlike water in a water distribution system, the contents of a sewer do not flow under pressure. Usually the slope is such that a flow rate of 0.03 meter (m) per second or more is maintained when the line is flowing half full to full. This is a self-cleansing velocity and prevents solids from settling in the sewer pipes. To the maximum extent practical, sewers are laid in straight lines. Corners and sharp bends slow the flow rate, permit clogging, and make line cleaning difficult.

Removing grease from sewage is essential to the proper functioning of sewage systems. At fixed installations, grease is collected by ceramic or cast iron grease interceptors installed at kitchens and other facilities that generate grease and by concrete or brick grease traps outside the building. Approximately 90 per cent of the grease will be removed from greasy wastes by properly maintained grease interceptors and traps.

RANDOM RUBBLE MASONRY

Stone

The stone shall be of the type specified such as granite, trap, limestone, sand stone, quartzite, etc; 'and shall be obtained from the quarries, approved by the Engineer - in -Charge. Stone shall be hard, sound, durable and free from weathering decay and defects like cavities, cracks, flaws, sand holes, injurious veins, patches of loose or soft materials and other similar defects that may adversely affect its strength and appearance. As far as possible stones shall be of uniform colour, quality or texture. Generally stony shall not contain crypst crystalline silica or chart, mica and other deleterious materials like iron-oxide organic impurities etc. Stones with round surface shall not be used. The compressive strength of common types of stones shall be as per table I and the percentage of water absorption shall generally not exceed 5% for stones other than specified in table I. For laterite this percentage is 12%.

Size of stones

Normally stones used should be small enough to be lifted and placed by hand. Unless otherwise indicated, the length of stones for stone masonry shall not exceed three times the height and the breadth or base shall not be greater than three fourth the thickness of wall, or not less than 15cm. The height of stone may be up to 30cm. 

Random Rubble Masonry shall be uncoursed or brought to courses as specified. Uncoursed random rubble masonry shall be constructed with stones of sizes as referred and shapes picked up random from the stones brought from the approved quarry. tones having sharp comers or round surfaces shall, however, not be used. 

Random rubble masonry brought· to the course is similar to uncoursed random rubble masonry except that the courses arc roughly levelled at intervals varying from 30cm to 90cm in height according to the size of stones used.

Dressing

Each stone shall be hammer dressed on the face, the sides and the bed. Hammer dressing shall enable the stones to be laid close to neighbouring stones such that the bushing in the face shall not project more than 40mm on the exposed face and 10mm on the face to be plastered.

Laying

All stones shall be wetted before use. Each stone shall be placed close to the stones already laid so that the thickness of the mortar joints at the face is not more than 20mm. Face stones shall be arranged suitably to stagger the vertical joints and long vertical joints shall be avoided, Stones for hearting or interior filling shall be hammered down with wooden mallet into the position firmly bedded in mortar. Chips or sprawls of stones may be used for Filing of interstices between the adjacent stones in heartening and these shall not exceed 20% of the quantity of stone masonry. To form a bond between successive courses plum stones projecting vertically by about 15 to 20cm shall be firmly embedded in the heart erring at the interval of about one metre in every course. No hollow space shall be left anywhere in the masonry.